Food Moisture Content and Obesity: Impact on Satiety, Energy Density, and Public Health

Introduction

Obesity rates have risen globally in recent decades, prompting extensive research into how different dietary factors contribute to energy intake and weight gain. Beyond macronutrients and calories, the moisture content of foods – essentially the water present in foods – plays a critical role in a food’s energy density (calories per unit weight) and how filling it is. Foods with higher moisture content tend to have lower energy density, meaning one can eat a larger volume for fewer calories, which may influence satiety (fullness) and overall caloric intakeacademia.edueveryonegoeshome.com. This report provides a comprehensive investigation into the relationship between food moisture content and obesity rates. We review scientific literature on how food moisture affects satiety and energy intake, analyze epidemiological data on dietary water content and obesity, and examine public health findings comparing high-moisture diets (rich in fruits, vegetables, soups) versus low-moisture diets (dominated by dry, processed foods and certain beverages). Global, national (United States), and regional perspectives are included, alongside tables summarizing key findings and correlations. The goal is to clarify how the water content of what we eat may help shape obesity trends and inform nutritional strategies for weight management.

Food Moisture, Energy Density, and Satiety Mechanisms

Water itself has no calories, so adding water to food effectively dilutes the calories per gram of that food. As a result, foods high in moisture have a low energy density, whereas dry foods (or foods high in fat/sugar with little water) have a high energy densityacademia.edulink.springer.com. This distinction is important because human appetite is strongly influenced by the volume and weight of food consumed, rather than calories aloneeveryonegoeshome.com. In general, people tend to eat a consistent weight of food at a meal until they feel full, so a diet composed of water-rich, low-calorie foods can satisfy hunger with fewer caloriesacademia.edueveryonegoeshome.com. Key mechanisms linking moisture content to satiety include:

• Stomach distension and volume: Foods with high water content (like broth-based soups, salads, fruits, vegetables) provide large portion sizes for relatively few calories, filling the stomach and triggering stretch receptors that signal fullnessacademia.edueveryonegoeshome.com. For example, consuming a big bowl of vegetable soup or a large salad (both ~90% water) can make one feel full, yet such a meal might contain only a few hundred calories. In contrast, a small bag of chips or a candy bar (low moisture, energy-dense) packs the same calories in a much smaller volume, often leaving one less satiated. Research shows that at equal calorie levels, low-energy-density meals (high in water and fiber) can be 2–3 times larger in volume than high-energy-density meals, leading to greater satietyeveryonegoeshome.com.

• Energy density and intake regulation: Because people tend to consume a similar weight of food, foods with more water allow one to eat the same weight of food for fewer calories. Classic studies by Rolls and colleagues demonstrated that when the energy density of foods is reduced (often by adding water or vegetables), people naturally eat fewer calories without noticing increased hungeracademia.edulink.springer.com. The water content of foods has been identified as the single largest factor affecting energy density – even more than fat or fiber contentacademia.edu. Simply put, water-rich foods help “fill you up” before they “fill you out.”

• Water incorporated in food vs. drinking water: Interestingly, the satiety effect of water is most pronounced when water is incorporated into foods rather than consumed separately. For example, drinking a glass of water alongside a meal does not reduce subsequent calorie intake as much as eating that same water blended into the food. In an experiment, researchers served participants a fixed breakfast preload in three forms: (1) a casserole, (2) the same casserole with a glass of water, and (3) the same ingredients turned into a soup (water added into the dish). When participants later ate lunch, those who had the soup (with water inside the food) ate ~27% fewer calories at lunch compared to when they had the casserole with or without a separate glass of wateracademia.edu. They also reported greater fullness and did not compensate by eating more lateracademia.edu. This and similar studies show that water in foods slows consumption and promotes fullness via sensory and gastric effects, whereas plain water quickly empties from the stomach. Essentially, a cup of water as soup will curb appetite more than a cup of water as a beverageacademia.eduacademia.edu.

• Palatability and cognitive factors: High-moisture foods often weigh more and look larger, which can influence perception of portion size. A large apple (about 85% water) or a bowl of berries can visually and physically seem like a substantial snack, whereas a small handful of pretzels (low moisture) might not, despite similar calories. The visual bulk of water-rich foods can enhance the feeling that one has eaten enough. Furthermore, many water-rich foods are high in fiber (e.g. vegetables, fruits, whole grains that absorb water during cooking), which further slows eating and increases satiety. While this report focuses on moisture, it is worth noting that fiber and protein also affect fullness. However, water is unique in that it adds volume without calories, and thus plays a foundational role in the Volumetrics approach to eating (a strategy explicitly leveraging water-rich foods to manage hunger). In summary, by lowering energy density, high-moisture content helps align our natural fullness signals with lower calorie intake, an important factor in preventing overeatingeveryonegoeshome.com.

Scientific Evidence: Moisture Content, Caloric Intake, and Body Weight

A robust body of scientific literature supports the connection between dietary water content (or energy density) and calorie intake as well as long-term weight outcomes. Below we review key findings from short-term feeding experiments, longer-term randomized trials, and observational studies:

• Short-Term Satiety and Intake Studies: Controlled experiments in both lean and obese individuals show that reducing the energy density of foods (often by adding water-rich ingredients) leads to immediate reductions in calorie intake. A recent meta-analysis of 38 randomized controlled trials found that lowering the energy density of meals reduced energy intake by an average of 223 kcal compared to higher–energy-density meals, even though people ate the same weight of foodlink.springer.comlink.springer.com. In these studies, participants allowed to eat freely tended to consume a consistent mass of food; when that food was lower in calories per gram (thanks to added water or vegetables), their total calorie intake dropped significantly. Notably, the meta-analysis confirmed a linear relationship between meal energy density and calories consumed – as energy density went up, people unknowingly ate more calorieslink.springer.com. These findings reinforce that manipulating food moisture content (and thus energy density) can substantially affect calorie intake without requiring conscious calorie countinglink.springer.com.

  • Example: Rolls et al. (1998) varied the volume of a milk-based preload by adding water (300 mL vs 450 mL vs 600 mL) while keeping calories constant ~ (500 kcal). When lean young men consumed the larger, dilute drink (600 mL, lower energy density), they ate ~18% fewer calories at lunch 30 minutes later, compared to when they had the smaller, concentrated version (300 mL)academia.edu. Despite the different intakes, hunger ratings were similar, and the men did not compensate by eating more at dinneracademia.edu. This illustrates that higher food volume (from water) can spontaneously reduce subsequent eating.

  • Soup vs. Solid Study: As mentioned earlier, Rolls et al. (1999) reported that integrating water into a food can dramatically increase its satiating power. In that study, women ate a fixed breakfast preload of either chicken-rice casserole, the same casserole served with a glass of water, or the casserole turned into soup by adding wateracademia.edu. Later at lunch, calorie intake differed strikingly: after the soup preload (highest moisture), women ate about 27% fewer calories than after the casserole preloadacademia.edu. However, simply drinking water alongside (casserole + water) had no significant impact – they ate similar amounts as with the casserole aloneacademia.edu. The soup condition led to greater feelings of fullness and less hunger, with no “rebound” increase at the next mealacademia.edu. This controlled trial provides direct evidence that water-rich foods increase satiety and reduce spontaneous calorie intake, whereas water consumed separately offers far less benefit.

• Long-Term Weight Loss Trials: Beyond acute effects, diets emphasizing high-moisture foods have been tested for weight loss over months or years. These studies indicate that incorporating water-rich, low-energy-density foods can improve weight loss outcomes and help control hunger. In a year-long randomized trial, obese women who were advised to eat more water-rich foods (fruits and vegetables) in addition to reducing fat lost more weight than women who only focused on cutting fatpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Both groups ate ad libitum (no strict calorie limits). After 12 months, the group adding fruits and vegetables (hence lowering overall diet energy density) lost ~7.9 kg, compared to ~6.4 kg in the fat-reduction-only grouppmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Although both approaches led to significant weight loss, the high-moisture-food group had a better trajectory of weight loss (p = 0.002) and reported less hunger over the yearpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Importantly, dietary records confirmed that the extra fruits and vegetables made the diet’s energy density significantly lower in that grouppmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. This trial’s conclusion was that reducing dietary energy density – particularly by increasing water-rich foods – is an effective strategy for managing body weight while controlling hungerpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Other intervention studies have similarly found that prescribing larger portions of low-energy-density foods (like salads, soups, fruits) helps people feel satisfied on fewer calories, facilitating weight loss or weight maintenanceeveryonegoeshome.comlink.springer.com.

• Observational and Epidemiological Studies: The relationship between dietary moisture (or energy density) and body weight is also supported by epidemiological data. Analyses of population dietary surveys show that individuals who consume diets with lower energy density (usually meaning more water-rich foods and fewer dry, energy-dense foods) tend to have lower body mass index (BMI) and reduced risk of obesity. For instance, a study of 9,500+ U.S. adults from NHANES 2005–2008 found that dietary energy density was positively associated with BMI and waist circumference: obese adults had significantly higher energy-density diets on average than normal-weight adultspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. In both men and women, there was a clear linear trend – higher dietary energy density correlated with higher BMIpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. In fact, obese Americans reported eating diets about 5–15% more calorie-dense than those of lean individualspmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Table 1 summarizes this and other findings. These observational links held even after adjusting for factors like physical activity, and they align with the idea that eating more low-moisture, concentrated foods promotes excess calorie intake and weight gain over time.

Several reviews reinforce this point. A 2016 systematic review concluded that higher dietary energy density is associated with greater adiposity and weight gain, whereas diets high in fruits, vegetables, and other water-rich foods are associated with lower obesity riskpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govlink.springer.com. Notably, the World Health Organization (WHO) has pointed to increased consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods (often low in moisture and high in fat/sugar) as a key driver of rising global obesitylink.springer.com. In contrast, WHO and national dietary guidelines encourage consuming plenty of fruits and vegetables (which are 80–95% water) as part of obesity prevention strategieseveryonegoeshome.comeveryonegoeshome.com. Taken together, the scientific evidence – from laboratory experiments to large population studies – consistently indicates that diets rich in high-moisture, low-energy-density foods help limit caloric intake and are associated with lower body weight, whereas diets dominated by low-moisture, energy-dense foods predispose to higher caloric intake and obesity.

Table 1. Selected Studies on Dietary Moisture/Energy Density and Weight Outcomes

Notes: ED = energy density. RCT = randomized controlled trial. BMI = body mass index.

Dietary Patterns: High-Moisture vs. Low-Moisture Diets and Obesity

The impact of food moisture content is perhaps most clearly seen when comparing entire dietary patterns. Some traditional diets inherently include a lot of water-rich foods, while modern “Western” diets often emphasize low-moisture, highly processed items. These differences in average energy density parallel differences in obesity prevalence across populations. Below, we explore several examples and data comparisons from global, national, and regional perspectives:

• High-Moisture Dietary Patterns: Diets that are naturally rich in fruits, vegetables, soups, and water-rich staples tend to have lower energy density and have historically been associated with lower obesity rates. For instance, the traditional Japanese diet features high-moisture foods such as vegetable soups (e.g., miso soup), boiled or steamed rice (which absorbs water), tofu and soy-based dishes, seaweed, fish, and green tea. These foods collectively provide a filling, nutrient-rich diet with relatively few calories per gram. Notably, Japan has one of the lowest adult obesity rates in the world – around 3–4% (BMI ≥30), compared to Western nations where obesity ranges from 20% up to 40%x.com. While genetics and lifestyle (including high physical activity) play roles, diet is a major factor. A report by Japan’s National Institute of Health and Nutrition highlights that Japanese adults obtain very few calories from sugary drinks, and this beverage pattern “may play an important role” in Japan’s low obesity prevalencenibn.go.jp. In Japan, unsweetened tea and water are the main drinks, and the average calorie intake from beverages is extremely low (on the order of a few dozen kcal per day, versus a few hundred in the U.S.)nibn.go.jp. Similarly, Mediterranean diets, such as those traditional to Italy and Greece, emphasize vegetables, legumes, fresh fruits, whole grains (often cooked in water, e.g. pasta, couscous), and soups or stews. These diets have moderate fat (e.g. olive oil) but lots of low-ED dishes and salads, which help balance energy intake. Countries like Italy historically had adult obesity rates around 10%x.com – much lower than Northern Europe or North America. The abundance of water-rich foods (ratatouille, minestrone soup, salads, fruits) in Mediterranean cuisine is thought to contribute to its lower energy density and has been associated with lower odds of obesity and weight gain in some studies. In essence, diets with plenty of high-moisture foods (≥80–90% water content) tend to be more satiating and lower in calories, supporting healthier body weights.

• Low-Moisture, Energy-Dense Diets: In contrast, diets that center on dry, processed foods and sugary beverages are typically high in energy density and have been linked to higher obesity rates. A prime example is the standard American diet (Western pattern), which features lots of fried foods, baked goods, processed meats, cheeses, sugary snacks, and sweetened drinks. Many of these are low in intrinsic water. For example, fast-food hamburgers, french fries, potato chips, cookies, and crackers generally contain less than 5–20% water and pack 4–6 kcal per gram (thanks to high fat/sugar content). It is perhaps no coincidence that the United States has a very high prevalence of obesity – recent estimates show about 40% of U.S. adults are obese (BMI ≥30)x.com. Part of this problem is attributed to dietary patterns: Americans, on average, consume large portions of calorie-dense, low-moisture foods and beverages. Only about 1 in 10 U.S. adults eat the recommended amounts of fruits or vegetablescdc.gov, indicating a shortfall in water-rich, low-calorie foods. At the same time, Americans get a significant portion of their calories from sugar-sweetened beverages and ultra-processed snacks. Sugary drinks (sodas, sweet teas, energy drinks) are essentially water plus sugar – they have high moisture content but also high added sugars, and they don’t trigger satiety the way solid foods do. The average American might drink 1–2 sugary beverages per day, easily adding 150–300 “liquid” calories that do not curb hunger (and thus come on top of solid-food intake). By contrast, someone eating the same calories in the form of a fruit or soup would likely feel much more full and subconsciously eat less lateracademia.edu. This difference in dietary moisture and energy density is reflected in health outcomes. Epidemiological data consistently link high intake of sugar-sweetened beverages to weight gain and obesity, because these drinks provide calories without fullness. For example, Mexico – which struggles with one of the highest obesity rates globally (~33% of adults) – also has one of the highest soda consumptions. Mexicans consume on average 163 liters of soda per person per year (nearly 0.5 L per day)theguardian.com, contributing a massive amount of “hidden” liquid calories. This reliance on low-satiety, sugary beverages and processed snacks is believed to fuel Mexico’s obesity crisis. In response, public health policies like soda taxes have been implemented to curb intake. Table 2 highlights how dietary patterns correlate with obesity in selected countries.

• Nutrition Transition in Developing Regions: The pattern of urbanization and diet Westernization further illustrates the moisture content–obesity link. In many low- and middle-income countries, traditional diets were based on high-moisture, high-fiber staples (vegetable stews, watery porridges, beans, whole grains, etc.) and had relatively low rates of obesity in the past. As these populations urbanize and incomes rise, diets often shift toward convenient, energy-dense processed foods that are more shelf-stable (lower moisture) – such as packaged snacks, fast foods, and sugary drinks. This dietary shift (nutrition transition) is accompanied by a surge in obesity and related chronic diseasesbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. For instance, in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, city dwellers now have greater access to energy-dense foods and sedentary lifestyles, and urban obesity rates are climbing, whereas rural populations with more traditional food patterns remain leanerbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. Researchers note that increased availability of low-moisture, calorie-dense foods in urban food environments is a significant risk factor for weight gain in these settingsbmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. These global trends underscore a fundamental point: when people replace water-rich, lower-calorie foods with drier, highly concentrated calories, the risk of overeating and obesity rises.

To crystallize these comparisons, Table 2 compares dietary moisture/energy characteristics and obesity rates across a few illustrative countries:

Table 2. Dietary Patterns and Obesity in Selected Countries

Note: Obesity rates are for adult populations in recent years (OECD/WHO data)x.com. Dietary pattern descriptions are generalized and focus on moisture and energy density aspects relevant to satiety and caloric intake.

Public Health Implications and Nutritional Strategies

Understanding the link between food moisture content and obesity has practical implications for public health guidance and personal dietary choices. Key insights and recommendations include:

• Emphasize Water-Rich, Low-Energy-Density Foods: Health authorities now commonly advise increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables not only for vitamins and fiber, but also as a strategy to displace high-calorie foods and reduce overall energy density of the dieteveryonegoeshome.comeveryonegoeshome.com. For example, the U.S. CDC and Dietary Guidelines for Americans emphasize filling half your plate with fruits and veggies as a way to manage weight while meeting nutrient needseveryonegoeshome.com. These foods are 80–95% water and add bulk to meals. Replacing a portion of a meal (or snack) that would have been a dry, calorie-dense item with a water-rich item can significantly lower that meal’s calorie content. Even simple substitutions – like choosing grapes over raisins, fresh oranges over dried fruit, or broth-based soup or salad as a starter instead of fried appetizers – leverage water content to reduce calories. Such swaps allow people to eat satisfying portions and feel full, but with fewer calories consumed.

• Leverage Soups, Salads, and Stews: As demonstrated by research, beginning a meal with a low-calorie soup or salad is an effective technique to curb total calorie intake. Public health experts often suggest eating a broth-based vegetable soup or a salad with a light dressing before the main course. This “pre-loading” strategy is based on the fact that these first courses are rich in water and fiber and can reduce hunger, so one eats less of the heavier entree. In weight management programs, recipes that incorporate water – like stews, chilis, oatmeal, smoothies with ice, or water-rich fruits like melon – are encouraged. Culturally, many traditional diets around the world incorporate soups or hydrating foods as part of the meal (e.g., miso soup in Japan, vegetable soup in Mediterranean countries, watery porridge in parts of Africa). Reviving these practices can be a useful public health approach to naturally lower the calorie density of modern diets.

• Beware of “Dry” Calories and Portion Creep: On the flip side, public health messaging highlights the need to limit intake of energy-dense, low-moisture foods – e.g. chips, crackers, candy, fried snacks, baked goods – which pack a lot of calories in a small package. These foods are easy to overeat because they are not very filling per calorie. For instance, an individual could mindlessly eat a small 50 g bag of potato chips (which is ~260 kcal, with potato chips being ~5 kcal/gram due to low water and high fat) and still feel ready for more, whereas 50 g of most fruits or vegetables (typically 10–40 kcal) would barely dent one’s calorie budget. Public health initiatives aimed at obesity prevention often focus on reducing consumption of such energy-dense snacks and desserts, or at least moderating portion sizes. Replacing or augmenting them with water-rich alternatives (air-popped popcorn over chips, fruit salad over cookies, etc.) can help individuals cut calories. Table 3 provides examples of high- vs. low-moisture foods and their typical energy densities to illustrate these differences.

• Hydration and Beverage Choices: While this report emphasizes water in foods, beverages also contribute to total calorie intake and satiety in important ways. Drinking plenty of water is generally recommended as part of a healthy lifestyle and adequate hydration. However, simply adding water (e.g. “drink 8 glasses a day”) does not guarantee weight loss – especially if one’s diet remains energy-dense. Studies on increased water drinking alone show mixed results; some find a small boost in weight loss for overweight individuals on diets, particularly if water is consumed before meals to help reduce portion sizesmdpi.com. But a more impactful strategy is replacing high-calorie drinks with water (or unsweetened beverages). Sugary beverages are a major source of excess “moisture calories” in Western diets that do not satiate. Replacing a 20 oz soda (240 kcal of essentially sugar-water) with plain water or a zero-calorie drink each day could, in theory, prevent ~24 pounds of weight gain over a year if those calories are not compensated for elsewhere. Many countries have enacted public health policies (soda taxes, front-of-package labels) to reduce sugary drink consumption for this reason. It’s worth noting that water, tea, or coffee on their own have no calories and can be consumed liberally; they hydrate without adding energy. Some research even suggests people with higher water intake have lower total calorie intake and slightly better weight outcomes – likely because they are substituting water for caloric drinks and possibly eating less energy-dense foods overallmdpi.com. On the other hand, alcoholic beverages are another source of liquid calories (and alcohol is dehydrating), which can contribute to weight gain, so moderation with alcohol is advised in weight control efforts.

• Nutritional Quality and Satiety: Emphasizing food moisture content should not come at the expense of overall nutrition. Fortunately, most water-rich foods are also nutrient-dense (packed with vitamins, minerals, and fiber). Fruits, vegetables, legumes, and soups with lean proteins are excellent for health beyond weight control. By contrast, many low-moisture foods are not only high in calories but also low in nutrients (refined carbs, added sugars, unhealthy fats). Public health guidelines increasingly promote diets that are both low in energy density and high in nutrient density – these include diets like the Mediterranean diet, DASH diet, and plant-rich diets. Such diets have been associated not only with healthier body weights but also lower risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other obesity-related conditions. In practical terms, aiming for meals composed of e.g. 50% vegetables/fruits, 25% lean protein, 25% whole grains (cooked) is a way to ensure high moisture and high nutrient content, while limiting calorie-dense components.

Finally, education is key. Many people do not immediately recognize which foods are high versus low in energy density. Public health campaigns and nutrition labeling can help highlight this. Some countries are exploring labeling foods with their energy density or satiety index. Even simple messaging like “Eat more foods that are high in water (and fiber) and you’ll naturally eat fewer calories” can resonate. As shown in this research, something as basic as the water content of our food can have a powerful influence on how much we eat and, over time, on our body weight.

Conclusion

Moisture content is an often under-appreciated factor linking diet to obesity. Water-rich foods tend to be low in energy density, allowing people to eat satisfying portions without consuming excessive calories, which in turn can help prevent weight gain or facilitate weight loss. Scientific studies have demonstrated that incorporating water into foods (through soups, fruits, vegetables, etc.) increases satiety and reduces subsequent calorie intakeacademia.edulink.springer.com. Populations with dietary patterns centered on high-moisture foods (such as many traditional diets) historically have had lower obesity rates, whereas diets dominated by low-moisture, energy-dense processed foods correspond with higher obesity prevalencex.combmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com. Of course, obesity is a complex condition with many contributing factors – physical activity, genetics, total calorie balance, and macronutrient composition all matter. Moisture content alone won’t determine one’s weight, but it influences the ease of overeating. High-moisture foods make it easier to satisfy hunger on fewer calories, aligning our physiological fullness signals with appropriate energy intake. In contrast, low-moisture, concentrated foods make it easy to take in excess calories before feeling full.

From a public health perspective, promoting diets rich in water-heavy foods (fruits, vegetables, soups, whole grains, etc.) is a viable strategy to combat obesity. Such guidance already aligns with recommendations to eat more plant-based foods and fewer ultra-processed items. The evidence reviewed here – from controlled feeding trials to epidemiological data – supports those recommendations, showing tangible benefits for satiety and weight controleveryonegoeshome.compmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. In combating obesity, small changes can have big effects over time: swapping a dry, 500-calorie snack for a 100-calorie piece of fruit and a glass of water each day, or adding a salad course to dinner, may create enough calorie deficit to halt gradual weight gain in the population. Ultimately, choosing more foods that are rich in water is a simple approach to lower the energy density of the diet and help individuals naturally regulate their calorie intake. As the world grapples with the obesity epidemic, this insight – that how much water our food contains matters for how full it makes us – is an important piece of the puzzle in designing effective nutritional interventions for healthier lives.

Based on the research and evidence presented:

Optimal Water Content of Food for Weight Management:

• Target Moisture Content:

  • 60–90% water content per meal or diet overall.

• Ideal Range for Satiety and Weight Control:
  Foods containing around 70–90% water (fruits, vegetables, soups, stews, salads) provide the most beneficial effects on satiety, helping control hunger and reduce calorie intake.

Recommended Food Examples by Moisture Content:

Practical Daily Recommendations:

• Aim for meals or snacks where at least half the plate consists of high-moisture (≥70% water) foods.

• Include at least one broth-based soup or fresh salad daily to leverage moisture content and fullness.

• Replace calorie-dense, dry snacks (cookies, chips) with fresh fruit, yogurt, or vegetable-based snacks.

• Drink water or unsweetened beverages primarily, rather than sugary beverages or juices.

This targeted moisture range supports feeling full on fewer calories, which naturally helps with weight management and obesity prevention.

Sources:

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